Category Archives: Chemistry

King Richard III: The hunch that loved lunch

Chemistry

Did you know that when the bones of King Richard III were discovered under a carpark and chemically analysed, it revealed he stuffed his face with food and wine until he died?

King Richard III ruled England for just over 2 years before dying in battle in 1485 at the age of 30.

Incredibly, his remains were accidently discovered underneath a carpark in Leicester, England in 2012 when it was being redeveloped.

This study performed an isotopic analysis of his bones and teeth to determine his diet, geographical movements and lifestyle.

The results indicate that when he became King, Richard III used his position to stuff his face with rich foods and wine.

This is the first study to use oxygen isotope analysis to identify archaeological drinking habits.

 

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Background

King Richard III ruled England for just over 2 years before being killed at the age of 30 at the Battle of Bosworth in 1485 (last battle of the War of Roses and the middle ages).

He has a controversial reputation due to the suspicious disappearance of his 2 nephews (princes in the tower) and Shakespeare’s unflattering play (Richard III).

There are reports he had a withered arm and limp (either fabrications or gross exaggerations), although it is accepted he had scoliosis of the spine, making him stoop.

Incredibly, his remains were accidentally discovered underneath a carpark in Leicester, England when it was being redeveloped in 2012.

The skull had injuries consistent with battle wounds and the spine was curved with scoliosis.

Materials and Methods

This study performed an isotopic analysis of bones and teeth to determine the diet, geographical movements and lifestyle of Richard III.

Analysing different bones/teeth gives a life history of the subject:

1) Teeth are formed during childhood and don’t remodel (change).

2) Femur (thigh) bone does remodel but quite slowly and represents the

period ~10 years before death (late adolescence for Richard III).

3) Rib bones remodel faster, representing 2-5 years before death (adult).

Different isotopes give different indications:

1) Strontium is a measure of diet and geographical location.

2) Oxygen is a measure of ingested liquids (drinks).

3) Nitrogen and carbon is a measure of diet.

Results

Strontium and oxygen isotopes suggest that Richard III spent his teenage years in Wales (or close by), which was not previously clear.

Nitrogen and carbon isotopes suggest he feasted on high trophic level foods (e.g. freshwater fish, wildfowl, swans) late in his life when he became King. These were delicacies only for the very rich.

Oxygen isotopes indicate he drank a lot of wine in his last few years.

Discussion

This is the first study to use oxygen isotope analysis to identify archaeological drinking habits.

Altogether, this study indicates that when he became King, Richard III used his position to stuff his face with food and wine.

Article

Multi-isotope analysis demonstrates significant lifestyle changes in King Richard III

Lamb et al., 2014 Journal of Archeological Science 50:559-65

Keywords

Chemical, isotope, archaeology, history, corpse, forensic, bone, teeth, King, Richard III, England, monarch, diet, lifestyle, scoliosis

Subject

Science, Biology, Chemistry, Archeology, ST1-12MW, ACSSU018, ST3-13MW, SC4-16CW, ACSSU152, SC5-16CW, ACSSU186

Superfast enzyme captures greenhouse gas

Chemistry, Earth Science

Did you know an enzyme from a super-tough bacterium could dramatically reduce greenhouse gas emissions by coal and gas power stations?

Release of CO2 from coal and gas power stations is the largest human source of greenhouse gases.

Currently, the most viable form of CO2-capture from these power stations is amine solvents (scrubbing).

However, it is currently inefficient and not economically viable.

Here, scientists mutated an enzyme called carbonic anhydrase to withstand the high temperatures and pH of amine scrubber solvents.

Inclusion of the enzyme in the solvent improved CO2-capture 25-fold.

If successfully scaled up, it could significantly reduce greenhouse gas production by coal and gas power stations.

 

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Background

Release of CO2 from coal and gas power stations is the largest human source of greenhouse gases contributing to global warming.

It accumulates in the atmosphere and reduces heat being reflected from the Earth’s surface back out to space (i.e. retains heat like a blanket).

Over 9 billion tons of CO2 are released each year from global coal-fired power plants.

Australia is one of the largest coal exporters and also one of the largest producers of CO2 (per capita) in the world.

Currently, the most viable form of CO2-capture from flue gases at coal/gas-fired power stations is amine solvent (scrubbing).

The CO2 binds to amine molecules and is retained in the solvent.

However, this is currently inefficient and not economically viable.

An enzyme called carbonic anhydrase, present in almost all living organisms, converts CO2 to bicarbonate and water almost a million times per second. One of the fastest enzymes on the planet.

Inclusion of this enzyme could improve the efficiency of CO2-capture by the amine scrubber solvent, but the enzyme is unstable in this solvent.

Materials and Methods

Scientists in California obtained carbonic anhydrase from a bacterium and mutated it (changed its amino acids) to make it more stable at high temperatures and high pH.

Results

Scientists used carbonic anhydrase from a bacterium called Desulfovibrio vulgaris as a starting point. This was chosen because it has naturally high activity in the amine scrubber solution (high temp/pH).

They mutated its amino acids to improve its stability in the solvent.

In total, they tested over 27,000 mutant forms of carbonic anhydrase.

Eventually, they developed a form of the enzyme that could tolerate temperatures up to 107°C and pH>10.

It can also be re-used for several days/weeks.

When added to the scrubber solvent, it increased CO2-capture 25-fold.

Discussion

Inclusion of this new heat/pH-resistant form of carbonic anhydrase improves the CO2-capture rate of amine scrubber solvents 25-fold.

If successfully scaled up, it could significantly reduce greenhouse gas production by coal and gas power stations.

Article

Directed evolution of an ultrastable carbonic anhydrase for highly efficient carbon capture from flue gas

Alvizo et al., 2014 Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. USA 111:16436-41

Keywords

Greenhouse, gas, climate, global, warming, coal, power, station, electricity, emissions, capture, carbon, dioxide, CO2, flue, temperature, pH, catalyst, enzyme, reaction, solvent, molecule, amine, mutation

Subject

Science, chemistry, ST1-8ES, ACSSU019, ST1-9ES, ACSSU032, SC4-13ES, ACSSU116, SC4-17CW, ACSSU113, ACSSU225, SC5-13ES, ACSSU189, SC5-15LW, ACSSU184, SC5-17CW, ACSSU187

New type of button battery that’s safer to swallow

Chemistry, Physics

Did you know that a new type of button battery is much safer for children to swallow (although we don’t recommend it)?

Around 5,000 children a year in America are rushed to hospital after swallowing batteries.

When the batteries contact body fluids, it activates an electric current that damages tissue.

Scientists from Harvard and MIT covered the anodes of button batteries with a silicone polymer containing silver particles.

At normal pressure, the silicone expands. The silver particles embedded in it are spaced far apart from each other and do not conduct electricity.

When pressure is applied by putting the battery in its casing in an electrical device, it compresses the silicone mixture, bringing the silver particles into contact with each other so they can conduct electricity.

If a child ingests the battery, it will not be compressed inside its oesophagus. The silver particles are spaced far apart and do not conduct electricity, thus protecting the child from tissue damage.

The authors are currently investigating the safety implications of children sticking the batteries up their nose and ears.

 

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Background

Accidentally swallowing batteries can be very dangerous.

Around 5,000 children are rushed to emergency departments in the USA each year, with an average of 1 death per year.

Besides choking, the batteries can cause damage to the digestive tract, particularly the oesophagus and vocal chords.

Tissue damage is caused by leakage of caustic alkaline electrolytes, and more significantly, activation of electric currents when in contact with body fluids.

Legislation was introduced in 2008 to restrict children’s access to batteries (i.e. they must be locked in a casing inside devices), however this has seen only a modest reduction in battery ingestions.

Therefore, alternative approaches are required.

Materials and Methods

Scientists from Harvard and MIT in Boston, USA developed a new coating that insulates the battery when ingested (prevents current flow). They visualised the coating using electron microscopy, then tested it in saline solution and in a pig’s oesophagus.

Results

Silver particles were mixed into a silicone polymer, which was applied to the anodes of button batteries.

At normal pressure, the silicone expands. The silver particles embedded in it are spaced far apart from each other and do not conduct electricity.

When pressure is applied by putting the battery in the casing of an electric device, it compresses the silicone mixture, bringing the silver particles into contact with each other so they can conduct electricity.

If a child ingests the battery, it will not be compressed inside its oesophagus. The silver particles are spaced far apart and do not conduct electricity.

Instead, the silicone acts as an insulator, preventing current flow from the battery (even in the presence of fluid), protecting the child from internal tissue damage.

Discussion

The silicone insulation also helps protect/insulate the batteries from water and prolongs their shelf-life.

The authors state they are currently investigating the safety implications of children sticking the batteries up their nose and ears.

Article

Simple battery armour to protect against gastrointestinal injury from accidental ingestion

Laulicht et al., 2014 Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. USA 111:16490-5

Keywords

Battery, batteries, electric, electricity, current, silver, conduct, conduction, silicone, polymer, ingestion, swallow, compress, compression, pressure, expand, pressure, oesophagus, emergency

Subject

Science, chemistry, ST1-12MW, ACSSU031, ST1-13MW, ST1-16P, ST2-16P, ST3-6PW, ACSSU097, ACSSU219, ST3-13MW, ST3-16P, ST4-10PW, ACSSU117, SC4-11PW, ACSSU155, SC5-11PW, ACSSU190, SC5-17CW, ACSSU187

New recycled plastic that can heal itself

Chemistry

Did you know that 2 revolutionary types of plastic were recently discovered when chemists made a stupid mistake?

Thermoset plastics are very strong and heat-resistant, therefore useful for constructing cars, planes and electrical equipment.

However they can’t be recycled, which is environmentally wasteful and expensive.

Here, chemists from California accidently forgot to add 1 of only 3 ingredients to a mixture, inadvertently creating 2 new plastics that can be recycled.

The first is extremely strong and heat-resistant, therefore useful for vehicle construction and electrical equipment.

The second is elastic and can repair itself if torn.

This is good news for the environment and might reduce the cost of plastics.

 

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Background

Thermoset plastics used in construction of cars, planes and electrical equipment are very strong, stiff, durable and heat-resistant.

Their strength comes from chemical cross-linkers that bind polymer chains together.

They do not break down at high temperatures, making them useful for cars and electrical equipment.

This also means they can’t be broken down and recycled to make new plastics. Instead, they are thrown away, which is wasteful.

Here, 2 new types of plastic were developed that can be recycled.

Materials and Methods

Chemists from California were making plastic when they forgot to add one of only three ingredients. Instead, paraformaldehyde was mixed alone with either ODA (4,4’-oxydianiline) or PEG (polyethylene glycol). The resultant plastics were characterised using NMR and solid state infrared spectroscopy.

Results

When paraformaldehyde was mixed with ODA, it made a very strong, stiff, durable and heat-resistant plastic. Amongst the strongest of all thermoset plastics, making it suitable for cars and electrical equipment.

When paraformaldehyde was mixed with PEG, it formed elastic plastic that had self-healing properties (i.e. repair itself if torn).

Importantly, both types of plastic could be dissolved in acid (pH<2), returning the plastics to their original monomers for recycling.

Discussion

The ability to dissolve and recycle these plastics is good news for the environment (require less raw materials) and could even reduce costs of plastic goods.

Article

Recyclable, strong thermosets and organogels via paraformaldehyde condensation with diamines

Garcia et al., 2014 Science 344:732-5

Keywords

Plastic, monomer, polymer, polymerize, polymerization, thermoset, cross-link, organic, molecule, temperature, pH, self-healing

Subject

Science, chemistry, ST1-12MW, ACSSU018, ACSSU031, ST1-13MW, ST1-16P, ST2-13MW, ACSSU074, ST2-16P, ST3-6PW, ACSSU097, ST3-13MW, ST3-16P, SC4-11PW, ACSSU155, SC5-17CW, ACSSU187

Why is gold valuable?

Chemistry, Earth Science, Geology

Of all the elements and compounds in the world, why has gold been a major form of currency throughout history?

The answer is in its chemistry.

It is a stable, non-reactive substance suitable for long-term storage.

Since it is an element, it can’t be destroyed.

It is highly malleable for shaping into coins and jewellery. Also non-toxic, so it can be worn.

Nearly all of it arrived from asteroids, so it is rare and there is a finite amount on Earth, making it ideal for trading.

It is consistent, since there is only one type of pure gold. Therefore, everyone’s gold has the same value.

Biggest nugget ever discovered was the Welcome Stranger nugget found 3 cm below ground near Dunolly in central Victoria in 1869. It was 61 x 31 cm and weighed 110 kg.

After thousands of years, gold is still being used as an important form of currency (currently used to hedge against the value of the dollar).

 

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Gold is rare and shiny, therefore highly sought after.

Gold is a highly malleable metal and can be moulded into virtually any shape desired. Thus, it could be moulded into portable forms of currency, such as coins and jewellery.

It is non-toxic and non-irritating, also making it suitable for carrying coins and jewellery.

It is one of the most stable elements. It doesn’t react with air or water, therefore doesn’t rust, dissolve or lose its shiny lustre. Makes it a suitable long-term store of value.

Since it is an element, it can’t be destroyed. Theoretically, it can be recovered from anything.

There is a finite amount on Earth, about enough to fill a tennis court to a height of ~10 metres. Therefore, there is a set amount of currency that can be traded (can’t make your own gold).

It is consistent. Because it is an element, there is only one type of pure gold. Therefore, everyone’s gold is the same and has the same value. Unlike other precious substances (e.g. diamonds) that can vary in quality (therefore value).

Nearly all gold on Earth arrived from asteroids.

Biggest nugget ever discovered was the Welcome Stranger nugget found 3 cm below the ground near Dunolly in central Victoria in 1869. It was 61 x 31 cm and weighed 110 kg.

Article

Simon Evans goes to market: Gold. BBC 4 radio program, June 2, 2014. With guests Tim Harford, Merryn Somerset Webb and Dominic Frisby.

Keywords

Gold, element, substance, chemical, compound, currency, money, value, economics, periodic table, metal

Subject

Science, chemistry, ST1-13MW, ST2-13MW, ACSSU074, ST3-13MW, SC4-16CW, ACSSU152, SC5-16CW, ACSSU186

Nuclear bombs used to measure the age of brain cells

Biology, Chemistry

Did you know that scientists used nuclear bomb tests to measure the age of cells in the brain?

Until very recently, it was thought that cells (neurons) in the brain are never replaced. i.e. the ones you are born with are the ones you die with.

Here, scientists performed a type of ‘carbon-dating’ to measure how old neurons in the brain are.

There was a particularly high level of 14C in atmosphere during the 1950s/1960s when countries like America and Russia were testing nuclear bombs.

This created a characteristic ‘pulse’ of high 14C levels that becomes incorporated into newborn neurons in the brain, thus marking their birth date. When compared to the age of the person, it tells you if people were born with those neurons, or they were produced after birth.

This work showed that new neurons are produced in adult brains (i.e. after birth), but only in two regions: the hippocampus and olfactory system.

Over a third of hippocampal neurons were regularly replaced, with around 1400 new neurons produced each day.

It might one day be possible to increase the growth of neurons to treat brain dysfunction in aging and dementia, or even just to supercharge brain power.

 

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Background

Up until the end of the 20th century, it was thought there were no stem cells or self-renewal in the brain. i.e. the neurons you are born with are the ones you die with, and once they are gone, they are never replaced.

However, in the 1990’s, scientists from the Karolinska Institute in Sweden and Prof. Perry Bartlett from the University of Queensland discovered stem cells in the brains of adult mice that continually make new neurons throughout life.

This was in a region called the hippocampus, which is important for learning and forming new memories.

However, does this also occur in humans?

Is it extensive enough to have a significant affect on brain function?

Does it decrease during ageing (as in mice), contributing to neurodegenerative diseases (e.g. Alzheimer’s Disease)?

Does it occur in other parts of the brain?

Materials and Methods

The authors measured the amount of carbon-14 incorporated into the DNA of newly-formed neurons in the adult brain (mitosis). This strategy is similar to radiocarbon dating used by archeologists, although the source of carbon-14 was quirkier. There was a particularly high level of carbon-14 in the atmosphere due to nuclear bomb tests conducted in the 1950s/60s (ended by the Limited Test Ban Treaty in 1963). This created a characteristic ‘pulse’ of high carbon-14 levels that acted as a marker for neurons born in the 1950s/60s. Therefore, the age of the neurons was compared to the age of the individual (post mortem tissue from people that died between 2000-2012).

Results

Stem cells and self-renewal does exist in the human hippocampus.

There is extensive self-renewal in the human hippocampus, more than mice. Over a third of hippocampal neurons were regularly replaced, with around 1400 new neurons produced each day. This is likely to be sufficient to provide a functional benefit to the human brain.

There is only a small decrease in self-renewal during ageing in humans, far less than mice.

Outside of the hippocampus, there is very little self-renewal.

Future Directions

It is not yet proven if replacing neurons is important for hippocampal function (i.e. learning and memory), although the extent to which it occurs in humans suggests it is likely.

Alternatively, it could be a hangover from evolution that is not required in humans. That is, humans have relatively long lifetimes and it is important to keep neurons alive to preserve long-term memories. Lower organisms, on the other hand, do not require such long-term memories as much and have greater abilities to re-grow particular brains structures.

Is self-renewal decreased further in patients with neurodegenerative diseases, such as Alzheimer’s Disease?

Could neurogenesis be artificially controlled to improve brain health? For example, design treatments to replace neurons destroyed by neurodegenerative diseases, stroke or brain injuries?

Article

Dynamics of Hippocampal Neurogenesis in Adult Humans.

Spalding et al., 2013 Cell 153:1219-27.

Further Reading

A follow-up paper by the this group (Ernst et al., 2014 Cell 156:1072-83) found that some new neurons can migrate from the hippocampus to the adjacent striatum region of the brain, although this is decreased in patients with Huntington’s Disease.

Keywords

Brain, stem cells, neuron, neurogenesis, nuclear bomb, carbon dating, 14C, isotope

Subject

Science, biology, chemistry, SC4-14LW, ACSSU149, ACSSU150, SC4-15LW, ACSHE119, ACSHE134, SC5-14LW, ACSSU175, SC5-15LW, ACSSU184, SC5-16CW, ACSSU177, ACSSU186

Russian spy poisoned with radioactive polonium

Chemistry

Did you know that a former Russian spy was poisoned with radioactive polonium in London in 2006?

His name was Alexander Litvinenko. He met 2 other Russian spies in a London hotel, and at that meeting, his tea was poisoned with polonium.

The 210Po isotope emitted alpha particles that caused massive internal tissue damage, immune system failure and hair loss.

He died 3 weeks later.

Some allege the Russian secret service and/or Government assassinated him, although no one has ever been charged with his murder.

 

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Background

Litvinenko was a spy for the Russian FSB secret service.

He was granted asylum by the UK in 2001, where he worked as a journalist, writer, consultant for MI6.

While living in the UK, he continued to make accusations against the Russian secret service and government.

Polonium is a very rare heavy element, found in uranium ores (~100 ug/tonne uranium).

It was discovered in 1897 by Marie (and Piere) Curie and named after her native country of Poland.

210Po is produced in nuclear reactors by bombarding Bismuth209 with neutrons.

Upon decay, 210Po emits alpha particles (half-life 138 days). Decay also emits heat, and 210Po was used in Russian lunar vehicles to keep their instruments warm while they were on the moon.

Alpha particles (helium atom nucleus) are emitted at 1/10th speed of light. They carry enough kinetic energy to liberate electrons from other atoms/molecules they collide with (hence called ionising radiation).

When ingested, it damages DNA, proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, etc that are required for maintaining the health of cells. When extensive damage occurs, the cells undergo apoptosis (programmed cell death) and kill themselves. When lots of cells die, it causes tissue failure.

Materials and Methods

210Po is extremely toxic. It is estimated that 1g is sufficient to kill 50 million people, while less than 1 ug can kill a single human. The source of the 210Po in this case is unclear, although it required the use of a nuclear reactor. Alpha-particles emitted by 210Po have low penetrating energy and are easily blocked by glass vials, even paper or skin. Therefore, the 210Po was unlikely to be detected by radiation detectors and easily imported into the UK. 210Po is highly soluble in water (cup of tea), colourless and odourless.

Results

Litvinenko met with 2 Russian spies at the Milllenium Hotel in Mayfair, London on Nov 1, 2006.

He drank a pot of tea that was later found to be contaminated with high doses of 210Po.

Traces of 210Po were also left at the house and car of suspected Russian spy assassins.

Traces of 210Po were detected in places Litvinenko visited in the hours after the alleged poisoning.

Litvinenko was hospitalised, suffering from immune system failure, hair loss and other symptoms.

He died on Nov 23, 2006 from massive internal tissue damage and ultimately heart failure.

Discussion

210Po was used to assassinate Alexander Litvinenko because the alpha particles it emits have high energy that cause extensive damage to internal tissues when ingested, killing the victim. But they also have low penetrance and are difficult to detect when enclosed in a vial, therefore relatively simple to smuggle into a country.

Articles

Death by Polonium 210, by McFee and Leikin.

Royal Society of Chemistry (http://www.rsc.org/chemistryworld/Issues/2007/January/Polonium210.asp)

Keywords

Radioisotope, isotope, alpha particle, polonium, poison, Russian spy, half-life, decay

Subject

Science, biology, chemistry, SC5-16CW, ACSSU177, ACSSU186

Graphene wonder material made from pencils and a blender

Chemistry

Have you heard of graphene? It’s the new ‘wonder material’ of the 21st century.

It is the thinnest and strongest material known to man.

It is an allotrope of carbon (like graphite, diamond and buckyballs).

Two scientists from Manchester Uni were awarded the Nobel Prize in 2010 for isolating graphene from graphite using sticky tape.

It has already been shown to be excellent for body armour (stopping bullets), since it is ultra-strong, thin, light, flexible and elastic.

The challenge now is to scale up production for commercial purposes.

Here, scientists from Ireland used a blender to break up graphite power (like the ‘lead’ from pencils) to obtain single sheets of graphene.

Graphene will almost certainly revolutionise construction of electrical circuits to make faster computers, solar cells, batteries, sensors, etc.

 

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Background

Graphene is the new ‘wonder material’ of the 21st century.

It is an allotrope of carbon (like graphite, diamond, buckyballs/tubes).

Carbon atoms are arranged in a 2D hexagonal lattice, like chicken wire.

Thinnest and strongest material known to man.

Also very light, flexible and malleable, and an excellent conductor of heat and electricity.

It exists naturally in graphite (the ‘lead’ in pencils), which is essentially layers and layers of graphene sheets stacked on top of each other.

The problem was isolating graphene (sheets are only 1 atom thick).

Two scientists from the University of Manchester were awarded the Nobel Prize in 2010 for isolating single sheets of graphene from graphite using common sticky tape.

The challenge now is to scale up production for commercial purposes.

Materials and Methods

Scientists from Ireland and the UK used high-shear mixing of graphite powder, a stabilising liquid containing detergent and a blender to exfoliate (isolate) sheets of graphene.

Results

The shearing force of the blender broke up the graphite, forming single sheets of graphene (plus unbroken graphite chunks).

The shear forces produced by their scientific blender are similar to those produced by a normal kitchen blender.

The graphene produced is of sufficient quality to be used for some commercial applications.

Discussion

Graphene will almost certainly revolutionise construction of electrical circuits to make faster computers, solar cells, batteries, sensors, etc.

Therefore, scaling up its production for commercial purposes is a major step forward.

Article

Scalable production of large quantities of defect-free few-layer graphene by shear exfoliation in liquids

Paton et al., 2014 Nature Materials 13:624-30

Further Reading

A more recent paper shows that graphene is excellent for body armour (stopping bullets), since it is ultra-strong, thin, light, flexible and elastic.

Dynamic mechanical behaviour of multilayer graphene via supersonic projectile penetration Lee et al., 2014 Science 346:1092-6

Keywords

Chemistry, chemical, carbon, allotrope, graphene, graphite, diamond, conductor, electricity, heat, Nobel, circuit, material, substance

Subject

Science, chemistry, ST1-13MW, ST1-16P, ST2-13MW, ACSSU074, ST2-14BE, ST2-16P, ST3-6PW, ACSSU097, ST3-13MW, ST3-16P, SC4-11PW, ACSSU155, SC4-16CW, ACSSU152, SC5-10PW, ACSSU190, SC5-17CW, ACSSU187

Boneyard is a retirement home for planes

Chemistry, Physics

Do you know where planes go when they are taken out of service?

They are stored in huge ‘plane-parking’ lots called ‘boneyards’.

For example, the David-Monthan Air Force Base in the Arizona desert holds 4,400 planes over 2,600 acre (10.5 km2).

The planes are stripped for parts or preserved for possible re-call to service.

The dry conditions of the desert help reduce rust.

Planes are protected from the sun by special reflective paint. Two undercoats of black plus a top coat of white to reflect the sunlight.

The top soil is only 6 inches thick and sits on top of a hard clay called caliche, which prevents heavy planes sinking into the dirt.

Planes that served on aircraft carriers are thoroughly washed to remove salt before storage to reduce rusting.

As part of an arms treaty with Russia, B52 bombers capable of carrying nuclear weapons are stored with their wings detached and placed next to the fuselage, so that Russian satellites can verify they are out of service.

A smelter at the base recycles metal.

 

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Article

The secrets of the desert aircraft ‘boneyards’

Stephen Dowling, BBC Future Website, Sept.18, 2014

Keywords

Plane, aeroplane, aircraft, jet, boneyard, desert, metal, recycle, rust, sun, sunlight, paint, clay, caliche, salt

Subject

Science, chemistry, ST1-8ES, ACSSU019, ST1-12MW, ACSSU018, ST1-16P, ST2-13MW, ACSSU074, ST2-14BE, ST2-16P, ST3-12MW, ACSSU095, ST3-13MW, ST3-14BE, ST3-16P, SC4-12ES, ACSSU153, SC5-17CW, ACSSU178, ACSSU179

Xenon gas is a new performance-enhancing drug

Biology, Chemistry

Did you know that some athletes are inhaling Xenon gas to improve their performances?

It competes with oxygen, causing mild hypoxia (lack of oxygen).

This induces an emergency response in cells, increasing the amount of a protein called HIF1a (hypoxia-induced factor 1-alpha ).

HIF1a increases the production of EPO (erythropoietin), which itself is a banned performance-enhancing drug/substance.

EPO increases production of red blood cells, improving athletic performance by increasing oxygen supply to organs (e.g. muscles).

SUMMARY: Xenon → ↓oxygen → ↑HIF1a → ↑EPO → ↑RBCs → ↑performance

WADA have banned Xenon, but they don’t yet have a test for it, so it might be difficult to enforce.

 

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Background

Xenon (Xe54) is a noble gas (far right hand side of the periodic table).

It is inert (un-reactive), because its outer shell is full with 8 electrons.

It exists naturally as a gas in trace amounts in the atmosphere (87 ppb).

It is used in some lamps and as an anaesthetic.

Some athletes are inhaling it to improve their performances.

Materials and Methods

This study used Xenon gas to protect kidneys of mice following ischemia (loss of blood supply). This mouse model was used to determine the cellular effects caused by Xenon treatment. These mechanisms are applicable to athletes inhaling the gas to improve their performances.

Results

Xenon gas works by competing with oxygen, effectively causing mild hypoxia (lack of oxygen).

This induces an emergency response in cells to survive, including increasing the amount of a protein called HIF1a (hypoxia-induced factor 1a).

HIF1a is a transcription factor (binds to DNA and controls gene expression).

It works by inducing expression of other genes that promote cell growth and survival.

One of these genes is EPO (erythropoietin), which itself is a banned performance-enhancing drug/substance.

EPO promotes production of red blood cells, improving athletic performance by increasing oxygen supply to organs (e.g. muscles).

Xenon → ↓oxygen → ↑HIF1a → ↑EPO → ↑RBCs → ↑performance

Discussion

Inhaling Xenon gas causes an initial reduction in the supply of oxygen to cells/organs. But then the cells respond by increasing HIF1a and EPO, which increases red blood cell production, ultimately increasing oxygen supply around the body, improving performance.

Inhaling Xenon gas is banned by WADA (World Anti-Doping Agency).

However, there is currently no way to test if an athlete is using Xenon gas, although WADA say they are working on it.

Altitude training and hypoxic chambers perform similar functions as inhaling Xenon gas (i.e. initial reduction of oxygen leading to increased red blood cell production), however these are NOT banned by WADA.

Article

Xenon pre-conditioning protects against renal ischemic-reperfusion injury via HIF1a activation

Ma et al., 2009 J.Am.Soc.Nephrol. 20:713-20

Keywords

Xenon, gas, noble, inert, electron, shell, athlete, performance, enhancing, drug, sport, oxygen, red blood cell, transcription, EPO, erythropoietin, WADA, hypoxia, hypoxic

Subject

Science, biology, chemistry, SC4-14LW, ACSSU149, ACSSU150, SC4-15LW, ACSHE119, ACSHE134, SC4-17CW, ACSSU225, SC5-15LW, ACSSU184, SC5-16CW, ACSSU186